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Theory and Practice
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data
- Quantitative - used to extrapolate beyond sample tested (usually measured in numbers)
- Qualitative - rich data that is highly descriptive (usually some form of text generated by participant)
Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research
Strengths
- Rich data
- Good for investigating complex situations (e.g. Phineas Gage, Genie)
- Tends to be more experimentally valid if the individual studied remains in their environment
Limitations
- Time-consuming
- Tons of data to deal with so analysis can be problematic
- Interpreting results can be affected by the experimenter - use reflexivity to minimize this
To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?
- Representative generalization - Individual studied is not representative of the population
- Inferential generaliztion - because individual is rare and unique we cannot extrapolate the findings to the general population
- Theoretical generalization - data may be used to generate a theory (inductive) or to confirm one (hypothetico-deductive)
Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research
- Informed consent (Genie)
- Protecting individuals from psychological and physical harm
- Anonymity and confidentiality must be maintained
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research
- Purposive sampling
- Snowball sampling - less time and energy required
- Convenience sampling
Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research
- Participants expectations - participant behaves in a way to please the researcher
- Researcher bias - beliefs affect interpretation of participant behavior
Explain the important of credibility in qualitative research
- Credibility is related to internal validity and how well the data reflects the beliefs/opinions/meanings of the participants
- Importance of peer-review
- Using other researchers' interpretations to validate conclusions
Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility of qualitative research
- Method triangulation - using different techniques to gather data - could be qualitative and quantitative (e.g. IAT and observation to investigate racial bias)
- Data triangulation - use data gathered from various qualitative methods (e.g. interview and observation to investigate prejudice)
- Researcher triangulation - use multiple researchers to agree on interpretations (Bandura did this)
- Theory triangulation - use several theories to analyze the data
- Space triangulation - use more than one setting/culture
- Some researchers argue you can never have an accurate account because of the nature of subjective experience
- Fielding & Fielding argue that the purest data and subsequent explanation arises from one method
- Example - single malt whiskey is pure and tastes better than a blended whiskey
Explain reflexivity in qualitative research
- Important that researcher is aware of his/her own beliefs so they do not affect the interpretation of behavior
- Researcher must reflect on his/her own beliefs and attempt to separate them if they are not to affect the data
- Willig's (2001) two forms of reflexivity
- Personal reflexivity - values, beliefs, experiences, political faction, socioeconomic class, personal interest in the results can influence the research both professionally and personally
- Epistemological reflexivity - related to how data was gathered, limited understanding of a particular group of people can restrict the amount of data gathered
Interviews
Evaluate semi-structured, focus group and narrative interviews
Semi-structured
Strengths
- Good for collecting data on socially sensitive subjects (e.g. sexual preferences, views on racism) because it is one-on-one
- Should be less biased by researcher's preconceptions
- Because it is an open-ended approach, participants can elaborate and clarify
- The theme is chosen in advance so non-relevant material is avoided
Limitations
- Data analysis is time-consuming
- One-on-one situation can be considered artificial which calls into question ecological validity
Focus Groups
Strengths
- Fast and convenient way to collect data from individuals concurrently
- Provides natural setting which can give ecological validity
- Uncovers knowledge and experience about what, how and why they think about a particular topic through the register (vocabulary, metaphors, sentence structure) they use
- Can reveal cultural values and group norms
Limitations
- Not always appropriate for a research question (e.g. sexual preferences or fetishes)
- Participants may not disclose all relevant information for fear of embarrassment or being judged
- Conformity can confound the results
- Ethical issues in conducting focus groups in non-free environments like prisons and nursing homes (informed consent, no freedom to choose)
Narrative Interviews
Strengths
- Good at elucidating complexity of individual experience because it shows how humans construct meaning in their lives
- Can be used for all kinds of people as it only requires everyday speech - education level
Limitations
- Tons of data to analyze which is time-consuming to transcribe and analyze
Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview
Before Interview
- Training the interviewer
- Avoid interviewer effects
- Interviewers can display non-verbal signs that affect responses
- Non-verbal signals (body language) could intimidate or upset
- Important to train interviewer to reduce non-verbal cues that can affect the interview process
- Choice of interviewer
- Appearance of interviewer matters (e.g. beauty or ethnicity)
- Imagine a very beautiful interviewer investigating a sensitive topic, participants may be less open and willing to share intimate or embarrassing details
- Imagine investigating racism and the interviewer has the ethnicity that the participate hates
- Can counterbalance interviewers and vary age and ethnicity
- Create interview guide
- Create a roadmap or diagram showing the themes to explore and any sensitive considerations interviewer may need to make so the participant feels comfortable
- Prepare ethical considerations for sensitive topics
- Have therapists ready or hotlines available
- Data Handling
- Data transcription
- Word for word or postmodern techniques?
- Data recording
- How will you record data?
- Audio, video?
- Consider effects of video cameras on participant
During Interview
- Build a rapport so participant feels safe and trusted
- Never abuse rapport to get participant to disclose more than they are comfortable with
- Ensure recording device is working
- Maintain eye contact with participant
- Use interview guide flexibly to make sure all themes are explored
- Use active listening technique so participants knows they are being listened to
Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis on interview transcripts
Grounded Theory
- Look at trancription and identify themes
- Use grounded theory where you ground your themes based on what is in the interview
- Look for low level categories and then higher level categories will emerge
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
- Based on grounded theory
- Goal is to get insight into individual's unique perception of an experience
- Willig's strategy for IPA
- Read the transcripts over and over until themes emerge
- Identify and structure the themes
- Create a table to organize the themes and include quotations as evidence to support the themes
Observations
Evaluate participant, non-participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations
Participant
- Become part of the group you observe
- Form relationships with group members
- Record data on what they say, how they interact
- Be reflexive
- Reflect on how you are interpreting data
- Reflect on how you may be affected by joining the group
Strengths
- Attempts to combine emic with etic approaches
- Can get detailed konwledge about a group of people or phenomenon
- Attempts to reduce researcher bias because researcher is not supposed to impose their views
- Can provide holitstic picture of a group of people or phenomenon because many aspects and characteristics can be included
- Cult example - different cermonies, behave during meals, interact with leader
Weaknesses
- Problematic to record data immediately so there can be memory distortions
- Problematic to record data objectively since humans interpret situations in their own way
- Time-consuming and demanding physically and psychologically
- Mental resources used to become part of the group and investing in them
- Researcher can lose objectivity
- There is a risk of going native
- Balance detachment to retain objectivity with involvement with the group
Non-participant
- Observe group from afar
- Take notes on what they say and how they interact
- Overt observation the participants are aware
- But then participants know they are being watched and may be reactive and invalidate data
- Covert observation the participants are unaware
- May have to use deception but will reduce participant reactivity
Naturalistic
- Observe groups in natural conditions
- Criminals in prison
- Mental patients in psychiatric institution
- Monkeys in a forest
- Can use cameras which can be hidden
- Less likely to affect participant behavior
- Less reactivity
Strengths
- High ecological validity because people are observed in natural environment
- Collect data in situations where it would otherwise be unethical or irresponsible
- Unethical to remove psychiatric patients from mental hospital
- Irresponsible to remove prisoners from jail just to study them
Limitations
- Reactivity can confound results because participants alter their behavior
- Collecting the data compromises the integrity of the data
- Use multiple researchers to increase inter-observer reliability
- Try and get researchers to agree
- Researchers document how they arrived at their conclusions
- Ethical concerns about observing people without their knowledge
- Justify use of deception on ethical forms
- Should not violate privacy of participants
Overt
- Overt is when you are making it known to participants they are being observed
- See points above
Covert
- Covert is when you do not tell the participants you are observing them
- See points above
Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation
Prepare Observations
- Decide type of observations
- Unstructured - document everything
- Data collection is difficult (writing everything down)
- Analysis is time-consuming
- Semi-structured - decide loosely which aspects of behavior will be documented
- Data collection is easier since you are noting relevant behavior only
- Deep analysis and high detail but still time consuming
- Structured - decide strictly which behaviors will be documented
- Data collection is very easy but analysis is restricted to preset categories
- Less detail but easier to carry out since less behavior is noted
- Decide type of notes
- Descriptive - observe and write down
- No inferences
- Girl is banging her head on a computer
- Inferential - comments made on observations
- Inferences made about why behavior occurred
- Girl is banging her head on a computer because she is frustrated
- Evaluative - commend on behavior and evaluate
- Make a judgment about behavior
- Girl banging her head on a computer does not have a positive relationships with computers
